A social model analysis of disability

A kindly fashion representative analysis of constipationIn young times, mixer mold of hinderance has gained academic attention through the works of acclaimed activists same(p) Vic Finklestein, capital of Minnesota Hunt and Mike Oliver (Barnes, 2000 Oliver, 1990a). The favor sufficient model of baulk holds a divergent view to that of the checkup examination model. The cordial model tends to murder a clear distinction between injustice and check. That is to say the impaired individual is dis fit as a result of sociable barriers and structures. This social model of disability view is esteemed highly in the developed nations as America, Germany, Britain and Austria. In the UK the handicap dissimilitude Act (DDA) was enacted establish on the medical model however service postrs adjusting to accommodate the law reasonably follow the social model (Lewis, 2005). Could the social model of disability be translated into the economies of the absolute majority earthly conc ern where lack radical infrastructure to meet the needs of persons with impairment be far reaching?This hear get out attempt to answer that question by firstly defining what social model and exploitation nations argon. It testament, secondly, develop further by giving a brief historical background of the social model of disability. Thirdly it exit discuss oppo puzzlee modules of disability such as the medical model, the WHOs international categorization of Impairments, Disabilities and Handicaps (ICIDH) and International Classification Functioning (ICF). It will make reference to situations in a few minority countries for broader comparison. harm in the majority sphere will be examined in conjunction with social model of disabilities ideology. Then finally critically analyse the social model under the microscope of the majority mankind perspective.Definitions and Models of hindranceLlewellyn and Hogan (2000) state that usually a model signifies a kind hypothesis that is specifically structural and which looks to make clear an idea by linking it to a a priori method and device. A model is basically a structure for assessing information. Models of disability therefore offer structures through which the experience of disability is understood. This enables incapacitate people to face for themselves and the union they live in a framework through which laws, regulations and structures drive out be developed. It also provides knowledge about the attitudes, ideas and prejudice of people and the impact they can have on people with impairments. Further more than, they high unaccented ways in which society relates to handicapped people in daily life. The models of disability are characterised by devil primary viewpoints, medical and social.Williams (1996), a proponent of the medical model, asserts that impairment is a natural let on of disability. Given the position that impairment is a natural get of disability, then the individual reachs respo nsible for his/her disability. Oliver (1990b) highlights this issue by saying that there are two main problems with the individual or medical model. Firstly, it places the problem of disability with the impaired person and secondly the cause of the problem and the practical confinements involved are imagined to arise from the impairment. The medical model was obviously born before the social model and is often held in contrasting opinion with the social model. Mercer, Shakespeare and Barnes (1999) posit that handicapped individuals are considered to be reliant on a nonher(prenominal)s to be looked after, and to overcome disability they have to rely on healing medicine. Practically, patternity through rehabilitation is then sought if the impairment cannot be healed. Overcoming disability can then be considered to be parallel with prevailing over physiological restrictions of impairment.Disability rights groups often compare this model to the price of intrusive medical procedures r esembling genetic screening. oftentimes big investment in these procedures and technologies is underpinned by the medical model. Oliver (1990b) asserts that where impairment cannot be hardened or cured, a lot of people with disabilities will receive inessential medical attention, which is oppressive and unacceptable. This is often thought of as a waste of money as adaptation of the disabled persons surroundings could be less costly and achievable than medical intervention. The medical model of disability is also seen by more or less disability rights groups as a elegant rights issue and they often freeze off of benevolent initiatives such as awareness raising campaigns which are used to portray disabled people. It is felt that this often encourages negativity and undermines the image of people with impairments and does muscle to promote disability as a governmental, social and environmental dilemma.The International Classification of Disease (ICD) was the first definitiona l schema developed by the World wellness Organisation (WHO). It had been in existence since 1893 and evidenced that the health care systems previously focussed on indisposition. The theorisation of disease was purely straight forward. If a disease manifests it is able to be cured or it can develop until the organism dies. The progress in medical technology drastically switchd the potential outcomes of pathologic conditions beyond weighing morbidity and mortality. Impairments and disabilities figure prominently in these conditions and as the ICD model could not assess health problems that were chronic or disabling a overbold model that would make assessment significant was required.The new definitional schema took an individual model approach in the name of International Classification of Impairments, Disability and Handicaps (ICIDH). hide (2000) confirms this when he comments on ICIDH2. He writes of his excitement as WHO shied away from its constricted medical model view point. ICIDH was developed in the mid 1970s and is partitioning of a family of classifications. It was purposely designed to constrict the gap between what health care will be able to do and what it is expected to do (WHO, 1980b). The International Classification of Impairments, Disability and Handicaps (ICIDH) basically examined the cost of non-fatal disease to an individual and also the interaction between that individual and society. There are three parts of the ICIDH which are related to the state of health. They are namely impairment, disability and handicap which has been defined as followsImpairment In the place setting of health experience, an impairment is any harm or abnormality of psychological, physiological, or anatomical structure or function.Disability In the context of health experience, a disability is any restriction or lack (resulting from an impairment) of ability to perform an activity in the manner or within the range considered normal for a human world.Handicap In the context of health experience, a handicap is a disadvantage for a abandoned individual, resulting from an impairment or a disability, that limits or prevents the fulfilment of a role that is normal (depending on the age, sex, social and cultural factors) for that individual. (WHO 1980a27-9)This classification was recognised world wide and underpinned many medical assessments just now it was not long before it came under criticism. Oliver (1990) for object lesson disapproves of the ICIDH because for an individual to carry out their role as an ordinary member of society the person would be expected to change instead of his/her environment. He feels the medical viewpoint on disability is propagated through the definitions given and that individuals are expected to be healed through some form of interference. Pope and Talov (1991) also criticised the employ of the term handicap. The devise had negative connotations which inferred limitations in performance. They also assert that ICIDH fails to make a clear distinction between disability and handicap planes.WHO, in the light of criticisms, brought about the development of the ICIDH-2 which soon after became International Classification of Functioning (ICF) (WHO, 2001). The social and medical models of disability have been integrated in the ICIDH-2 (Finkelstein 1998, Barnes and Mercer, 2004 World health Organisation, 2002). The aim of the ICF was to create a classification that would be simple enough to be considered by practitioners as a significant description of the consequences of health conditionsAmong other things it was to be functional and enable identification of health care needs, shape intervention programs interchangeable prevention or rehabilitation. De Kleijn-De Vrankrijker (2003) affirms that the ICF is a better revision of the ICIDH. The delivery is impartial and the fundamental values very contrasting.The social model, however, was developed in the 1970s by disabled people. It was a response to basically how society treated disabled people plus their experience of the welfare and health systems which drove them to being segregated and oppressed. Scholars like Vic Finkelstein, Colin Barnes and Mike Oliver gave it a backing (Shakespeare and Watson 2002). The social model could be state to have been initiated from an canvas entitled A Critical Condition written by Paul Hunt in 1966. (Hunt, 1966) In the essay Paul Hunt argued that society held non-disabled people in high esteem making disabled people feel unlucky and good for nothing. Fallow (2007) however, argued that this skill not be an exact view of disabled people but one that had been imposed on them.Al some a decade after Paul Hunts essay, the Union of Physically Impaired Against Segregation (UPIAS) developed the social model in their definition of impairment and disability. They asserted that disability wasthe disadvantage or restriction of activity caused by a contemporary social organisation which takes little or no method of accounting of people who have physical impairments and thus excludes them from affair in the mainstream of social activities (UPIAS 197614).Mike Oliver, teaching a group of social work students, later coined the term social model in an attempt to advance the ideas of the UPIAS Fundamental Principles. He said focusing on the individual model concept against that of the social model he derived the difference made between impairment and disability by UPIAS. (Oliver 1990b)Making a clear distinction between impairment and the disabling set up of society in relation to impairment is what the social model is about. It implies that when a person cannot walk it is not his/her inability to walk that disables them but the lack of stairs that are not wheelchair accessible that disables them. If a person is visually impaired, it is not their impairment that disables them but the lack of information in Braille or large print that disables them. Disability can be said i n other words to be socially constructed. The social model recognises people with physical, mental or learning difficulties may not be able to function and therefore seeks to remove any barriers that limit their functioning. It advocates for disabled people to have a go at it equal rights and responsibility. Swain et al (2004) assert that impairment should be considered as a positive benefit not something pitiful. It has been documented from disabled peoples perspective that being impaired can have benefits.Definitions of growing and Majority WorldDeveloping nations is an economicalal term used to describe medium income economies for the purpose of this essay. It is a term that has many variations for example third world, and the south (Stone 1999). These terms are sometimes frowned upon because they give an impression that western industrialisation or so called developed nations provide the yard stick for judging advancement. Stone (1999) alleges that the idea of the west occupy ing the highest sit in development and the rest world hanging to the sit is inherent. Developing nations also refers to a nation or country that does not have a well developed economy and political structure compared to industrialised nations. World Bank Group (2004) defines development nations as countries with average levels of GNP per capita plus 5 high-income growing economies like Hong Kong, Israel, Kuwait, Singapore and United Emirates. Pearson Education (2005) states that they are nations that have been defined by the World Bank as having low or eye incomes with low living conditions compared to high income nations. Katsui (2006) uses the South to refer to developing countries and beneficiaries of growth collaboration and North for developed countries.Majority world refers to non-westernised countries where often policies and structures are lack to support the nations. These are countries that fall outside of the minority world and are considered to have low income per ca pita, levels of economic growth and low indices of life expectancy and education. nonage world also leap outs for developed world, western world, the North and industrialised nations. Countries like America, Australia, Germany France, Britain, Netherlands etc that have high level of economic growth according to their income per capita and high crude domestic product per capita. Industrialisation is another economic criteria used to measure growth in these countries. In recent times more outstanding issues like human development index matched with economic weight, national income, other measures, indicators like life expectancy and education have become part of the criteria for measuring which image of world a country is from.Disability in the Minority WorldPriestley (2005) puts forward that there has been a remarkable change in the way disability is viewed in European social policy. The minority world has over the years seen the application of social model of disabilities in vari ous laws, policies and strategies. The European Commission (EC) (2010b) maintains that disabled people should have dignity, basic rights, and protection against intolerance, equality, justice and social cohesion. It sees disability as a social construct which fronts intolerance and stigmatisation. Consequently, it is the disabled persons environment that has to change and not the person. The EC has a disability strategy plan (DAP) which guides disabled policies.The EC wants to see disabled people get involved in disabled affairs and also have more accessibility, job opportunities and self-sufficient living. EC (2010a) further asserts that about 80 million Europeans have a disability and cannot enjoy the everyday comforts like riding on a bus, shopping, using the internet and watching television because of barriers put in place by society. A new strategy to remove these obstacles has been implemented. These EC statements are certainly underpinned by the social model of disability. Th ey all advocate for a disabled persons environment to be altered to enable them participate fully in society. National Disability Authority (2005) adds its voice to the debate by saying the social model has added to the pause from disability based agendas to a more conventional and inclusive approach.All of the above makes it relatively easy to live with impairment in the minority world. The render of the welfare system is a fundamental part of western society and those who benefit from it most are those who are unable to work because of ailment (Overland 2007). If a person lost a limb, for example, they would be registered disabled as they would be limited in what they could do. Their needs would be taken care of by some sort of income benefit. Fit-for-purpose cars are built for people who have difficulty moving about. Special parking spaces for disabled people are provided making life relatively easy for many disabled people. Architecture supports building design and factors in access acts. The Disability Equality Duty (DED) which was introduced by the new Disability Discrimination Act of 2005 in the UK for instance makes public bodies obligated to take into consideration the needs of disabled people when they are planning services. An affirmative attitude is recommended to be shown towards disabled people. Out-Law (2006) affirm Disability Rights Commission UKs view that the Disability Discrimination Act 2005 would bring a great change to disabled people and will change how public authorities offer their services.Walking aids are provided for those with balancing difficulties to help support and maintain their balance. Visually impaired are given guide dogs to move around with. They have various assistance technologies to help them study and participate in full economic and social activities. Most organisations provide accessible information for the hearing and visually impaired. There are electronic resources that support disabled life. Enabled People w ebsite is one of them. It gives information about disabled support, rights and systems (Bristow 2005). essential nations and their respective governments make sure that disabled people live normal lives or reduce restrictions placed by disability. They have organisations and networks and people or organisations with political clout lobbying on disabled peoples behalf. Disability in Britain was transformed by disabled peoples movement in the 1980s (Hasler,1993).The European non-governmental organisation, European Disability forum (EDF) stands for the concerns of 65 million disabled people in Europe. In America effective laws like the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 regulates disability law and prohibits discrimination against people with disabilities in housing, employment and access to public services. The purpose of ADA is to assist disabled people in any way practicable and to ensure that their human rights and civil liberties have not been abused. It ensures that disabl ed people have all the comforts non disabled people have like disabled parking space and permits, ramp laws to showers and bathroom installations designed for physically disabled people. ADA was also established to improve quality of life by training both disabled and non disabled. well-disposed model disability ideologyThe developing world cannot boast of such a life for its disabled people. The social model of disability has become cognize and thrived within minority or western society but critics have said it cannot be translated into the majority world (Stone, 1997 Miles 1996). In Britain the social model has become a fundamental indicator of disability politics which is used by disabled activist to differentiate among establishments, strategies, regulations and ideas (Shakespeare 2002). The needs and opportunities for people with impairments in majority world are sometimes entirely divergent from those in minority world and may require various solutions, systems of enquiry and explanations. The inequality is not a stand alone issue, but has roots in the various ideologies that surround disability in the majority world.The social model of disability has two main schools of thought. Those who guess that capitalism has contributed to the oppression of disabled people and those who believe that disability is as a result of an inherent believe in culture, attitude and prejudice (Sheldon et al., 2007 Barnes and Mercer 2005).The former, materialist, believes that the economic and political structures put in place in society have largely contributed to disabilism. Therefore political effort is desired to effect fundamental changes of an unequal system designed by capitalism. The latter, Idealist believes that disabled people are excluded from society purely because of lack of thought than anything else and in that sense a reparation can be sought with education and addressing peoples attitudes without changing legislation that excludes people from everyday a ctivities and inaccessible infrastructure (Priestly, 1998). This line of argument supports the improving of existing social systems.Capitalism which controls most of the world economy today is believed by the materialist to be the undercurrent of pauperisation in the majority world. Norberg (2003) raises issue with the fact that per capita GDP is more than 30 times higher in 20 wealthiest nations than in 20 deprived nations. Oliver (1999) asserts that the oppression of disabled people is ingrained in the economic and social formation of capitalism.Free merchandises have allowed various international organisations and individuals to set up home in the majority world taking away land and billet from original settlers. Eskine (2009) asserts that numerous rich nations are purchasing land from the majority world for future investments. Since 1960 a new orbiculate industrialisation has arisen with international corporations direct in offshore outsourcing (Nash J and Fernandez-Kelly 1 983). This has caused people who use to rely on agriculture fishing and petty trading to lose their livelihood pushing them into poverty. pauperism is a major cause of disability in the majority world as simple diseases like diabetes cannot be managed making people blind. Thomas (2005) posits that poverty and disabling impairments are expressly connected and most disabilities can be avoided because they are poverty orientated.Meanwhile, other social commentators also argue that the free market is a good thing and that developing countries will benefit from this freedom (Urbach, 2004 Murkherjee, 2004) People will be able to travel freely and immigrate to other countries. They would also be able to trade with who ever they wish to trade with. It is further argued that consumers will have a wider choice and businesses will be able to lower their cost by hiring workers from other countries. Organisations setting up home in the majority world will bring more work to the society and peop le will be able to learn new skills, have social links and mix with other cultures but are these arguments not fix in colonialism or neo colonialism?Nkrumah (1965) asserts that neo-colonialism is the most damaging form of imperialism because those who engage in it have power but not accountability leaving those at the brunt of it exploited with no way of putting things right. Examples are, in the mid 20th century in places like Africa where nations obtained independence from their European masters but imbed that they were not totally free from their influence. Governments were undermined using destruction tools like propaganda, coup dtats and the nomination of specific people into positions of influence (Hanlon, 1991). This caused many nations to remain hooklike on their colonised masters even though they were free.Another form of capitalism which has influenced the majority world is Imperialism. It has been described as the ultimate form of capitalism and an extension of the bas ic parts of capitalism (Lenin 1916). Imperialism creates socio-political systems which make the world an unfair place and this inequality is constantly represented in global relationships where the rich and lamentable nations difference of opinion for the same resources and the improvement of their citizens. That is, if a nation is able to get in the lead by maximising its resources, technology and power then it becomes a super power and rules the others who could not. This gap then becomes a divide which has been termed the North-South gap. This ruler and ruled is an old concept. Wallerstein (n.d) posits that difference is a basic truth about todays world systems as is of past world systems.Even though Imperialist rule has long gone, distribution of resources and power is still uneven. Global south is still being exploited and continues to trail behind the super powers with all types of international insecurities like starvation, disease, civil war and the digital divide (Fong 20 09 Compaine 2001). This inequality produces continuous discrimination making majority nations more impoverished. The gap means the rich minority world has been able to create powers that in effect control the poor majority world. Organisations like the World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF) have over the years designed policies and strategies which are difficult for the majority world to follow (Barnes and Mercer 2005).Disability in the majority worldAccording to the World Health Organisation 650 million people are disabled in the world. Of this total, 80% live in developing countries, 20% of them are the poorest in the world. Out of these figures provided 2 3% of disabled children have access to education (Youthink, 2010). These figures are significant and make uncomfortable reading. Katsui (2006) gives further insight by stating that according to the United Nations (2000) and San (1999) Out of 80% disabled people living in the developing world only 2% receive some type of help. He further asserts that disabled people who live in the south are mainly uncared for by the governments and the global society. Godrej (2005) posits that in the majority world people with impairments are not at the top of the priority list.Disabled people in the majority world show multiple challenges, the overarching being poverty and social discrimination. WaterAid (2010) indicates that disabled people in the developing world do not only deal with social barriers but poverty and isolation. Yeo (2001) Coleridge (1993) states that suffering high levels of poverty is not the only problem for people, but the likelihood of acquiring an impairment. Furthermore, people with ailments normally have little rights to property, medical care, healthy food, accommodation, education and work.Lack of thorough diagnosis of ailment and on going medical care is another challenge for the disabled in the developing world. Impairments like Down syndrome can be detected in the womb but the fa irly sophisticated equipment for doing this is often lacking. In child birth, routine conditions which are taken for granted in the minority world cause complications which often lead to brain damage and other physical disabilities for babies and their mothers. Baylies (2002) states that, pregnant mothers who for instance, abuse intoxicant are often not aware of the harm they are causing their unborn children. A large number of mental impairments are acquired because of Iodine inadequateness or poor nutrition.Disabled people are normally very deprived and frequently reside in places where health care and other facilities are hard to come by or does not exist leaving some impairments undiscovered and others not discovered on time (United Nations Enable, 2006). In the developing world many disabled people are less likely to be employed. Many resort to begging on the streets to support themselves and their families as most of the time there are no structures in place to support them in employment. Income is scant, dwindling and unequally allocated among the disabled. Transportation is another challenge as cars, lorries, buses and trains are not accessible for disabled people. Savill et al (2003) argues it is challenging for disabled people to travel therefore difficult to find a job or socialise.In many parts of the majority world culture affects the way disability is perceived. Often times, ignorance, superstition and fear cause people to see disability as a curse from God. In some parts of the majority world disabled people are seen as sub-human and unhealthy to join in confederacy activities. Some are ashamed of their disabled relatives and hide them depriving them of any prospects whiles others view them as supreme beings and worship them (Turmusani, 2003 Edgerton, 1970). Disabled people hardly form part of the political process in the majority world often missing in the process of making decisions in communities and governments. Some even dont have the ba sic right to vote in elections because of difficulties in getting access and information. Most of the time, they are not consulted on subjects and decisions concerning them.Relevance of Social Model in majority worldAdvocators of the social model emphasizes that discrimination against disabled people is socially constructed and has little to do with their impairments. Meaning that disabled people in the majority world can live more like their non disabled peers if social barriers like inaccessible roads, transport, schools, hospitals and churches were adapted to accommodate them. Barnes (2009) states that disability is a social problem which has been change state by globalisation and that the answer to the difficulties disabled people face in the developing world will probably remain the same if fundamental changes do not occur at local and global stages. Albert and Hurst (1997) affirms that the social model has given rise to awareness among the disabled people to forge a popular front to fight for their basic rights.However, the relevance of the Social model of disability has been questioned by a number of academicians. Grech (2009) criticises the social model saying it is challenging for cultures because it for a certain period and speaks for certain class of disabled people in the minority world. She further argues that applying the social model in communities where the source of revenue is based on household economies is debatable. Edgerton (1970) describes in his East African research on how different communities across East Africa view people with mental impairments. Some show prejudice, others welcome them whiles others revere them. It has been argued that these cultural differences would make the adaptation of the social model of disability difficult. Albert and Hurst (1997) refute this argument asserting that many local customs like genital mutilations and killing of infants are acceptable in certain cultures but are they acceptable world-wide? This is affirmed by Baird and Hernndez (2005) Toms Hernndez a disabled activist from Nicaragua highlighted on the changes that took place in Managua after wheel chair users demonstrated, realising they could not go to work without help. This demonstration had a positive effect where the sitting government took measures to lower kerbs and build ramps to accommodate wheel chair users.The Social model of disability is also accused of not taking into account the impairments of disabled people. Albert and Hurst (1997) asserts that this a major problem for the minority world how much more the majority world but they immediately defuse this statement by arguing that the statement is made by able bodied people who have no idea of what it means to live with impairments. Thomas, Gradwell and Markham (1997), and Oliver (1996) state that the social model of disability does not overlook impairment but refuses to give it attention. Opponents of the social model of disability like Crow (1996) and Fren ch (1993) question the reason the word impairment is being overlooked and calls for it to be brought to the fore as it is a fundamental part of being disabled. Albert and Hurst (1997) further argue that the social model of disability does not overlook the source of disability rather it advocates for the removal of social constructs like poverty and wars that easily beset people.Another argument is that the social model of disability is a western phenomena and that disabled people in the minority world have basic needs and therefore are able to fight for social rights whereas their compatriots in majority world lack even the basic needs (Werner 1998 cited in Albert and Hurst 1997 p27). Charowa (2005) posits that disabled people in Zimbabwe are frequently not able to acquire personal aids so they make use of makeshift wheel chairs. Albert and Hurst (1997) however, counter argue that the social model of disability is not a western phenomena as a large percentage of its out spoken propo nents come from the majority world. Schmidt (2010) indicates that specialist equipment that will require the use of energy will not be helpful to the 1.5 billion people who are poor. International Energy Agency forecast that 1.3 out of the 1.5 poor people will not have access to energy until 20 years time.Another point raised against the relevance of the social model of disability in the developing world is the matter of difference. Where for example, the physical impaired are treated better than people with mental impa